Transnational Press London

This paper looks at these so-called " war brides " (Sensou hanayome) in the postwar Philippines, and their experiences upon migration to the Philippines in the 1950s to the 1960s. More specifically, I examine how ethnicity has become stigmatized in Philippine society of that time due mainly to wartime experiences. I also explore their how they lived their lives in varied degrees of discrimination, inclusion and exclusion. I particularly use the ascribed ethnic marker " Haponesa " or Japanese woman, in the Filipino vernacular, to illustrate how ethnicity has been stigmatized. I utilize life stories of those women who lived decades of their lives in the Philippines. While several of them choose to go back to Okinawa, many of them made the Philippines their home. Semi-structured interviews were done in 2009 and 2012, both in Okinawa and in the Philippines. I also use data I gathered in late 2011 to 2013, when I was doing on-and-off fieldwork in Okinawa.

The purpose of this paper is to verify the extent to which Brazilian Migration Policy has been influenced by the US War on Drugs and how, justified through a security discourse, it employs practices that violate human rights.  A key objective is to determine if the combined effects of drug securitization and historical racism are resulting in the start of a “crimmigration” process. The fact that the federal police, the agency in charge of policing drug trafficking, is also the one that manages immigration, is a major factor in this assessment. This paper further analyses the immigration policy of the Netherlands, for two key reasons. Because a Crimmigration process is also apparent in the Netherlands comparison with the Brazilian context provides for an assessment of the relative degrees of Crimmigration. Secondly, because Dutch drugs policy is fundamentally different to Brazil’s, it provides scope for valuable insights into how differing causal factors lead to the same results, such as the fact both countries treat migration policy with a security bias. The methodology applied in this research is based on bibliographic materials and governmental documents related to the immigration process in Brazil and in the Netherlands.

What drives German-Turks to return to Turkey? This study attempts to answer this question by investigating the determinants of return migration intention among German-Turks. While German-Turks, invited to work in the booming post-war economy, have always been defined as “guest workers” and expected to return to Turkey eventually, they have preferred to stay in Germany, enjoy increased wealth by earning high wages, and benefits from the German welfare system. But things have changed since 2006, and the net migration number of Turks has now fallen to below zero for the first time. This study aims to identify the factors that influence the multifaceted issue of return migration intentions. I use the most recent “Migration Sample (M1)” of the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP), which includes 463 respondents who have a Turkish background, to estimate logistic regressions models for return intentions. This study focuses on testing the effects of four domains: (1) economic integration, (2) social and economic ties with Turkey, (3) discrimination, xenophobia, and multiple identities, and (4) generational status. The results indicate that all these domains make a contribution to return decisions.

“Migration is an expression of the human aspiration for dignity, safety and a better future.  It is part of the social fabric, part of our very make up as a human family.” (Ban Ki-moon)
Forced migration is the coerced movement of people from their country of nationality or habitual residence. The phenomenon presents challenges which affect the individual, their receiving communities, and then become a highly-politicalized issue which transcends borders. Although Australia has historically been built on migration flows, its island-nature underpins a national psyche of rigorous border control, clearly contrasting the European situation where flows of people have been a constant theme throughout history. We explore Australia’s approach to dealing with those forced migrants who have arrived by boat without a valid visa (thus, "unauthorized maritime arrivals"), detailing a) the impact of policies and law, b) the practical disorder following certain policy application, c) the financial and human cost, d) the juxtaposition of Australia’s current policy, which acts to deter "unauthorized maritime arrivals" while simultaneously increasing the number of authorized refugee arrivals in response to acknowledged human crises. Finally, we explore the repercussions that arise when a human issue becomes a political tool.

The aim of this research project is to examine why highly skilled Turks propose to migrate from Germany to Turkey and whether there are gender-related disparities in migration intentions. The rising migration of highly skilled Turks of the second and third generation has recently paid attention in both, Germany as in Turkey in research, politics, and economy as well as in the media. These highly skilled academics were born and grew up in Germany, enjoyed the education here and leave the country towards Turkey, to reach their career goals there. Fourteen qualitative interviews with highly skilled individuals of Turkish origin of the second and third generation in the Ruhr area (Bochum, Duisburg, Essen and Dortmund) were the foundation of a qualitative study to examine their motives to leave Germany towards Turkey. The results of this research project show that for the majority of the interviewees principally exists an openness to imagine a future life in Turkey. While women predominantly intend to leave Germany for family and partnership reasons, men would primarily migrate to Turkey for professional reasons and for their career. The study comes to the result that not a particular motif, but only the compound of numerous reasons, leads to a motivation for a migration from Germany to Turkey.

One important discussion today is the possible negative effects that immigrants have on the wages of natives. In accordance with the theory of labor demand and supply, people believe that new immigrants could take the jobs of the existing workers. Many researchers have showed that there is little impact of immigration on wages and employment of existing workers as for example for the U.S. and the UK . The model fails to explain job polarization and wage inequality between natives and immigrants. Is it possible to model the effects of migration on wages in a different way that has the potential to be more tractable? Many of the shortcomings of the model can be addressed by using a task-based approach to the effects of migration in the labor market. This paper presents such extension following the Ricardian Skill Model  (Autor, Levy, & Murnane, 2003). An analysis, without solving for the equilibrium and keeping capital and technology constants in the short run, gives us the following results: In the presence of migration, there will be a re-assignation of tasks. The wages of local workers will not be necessarily affected, but wage inequality within the labor market should increase.

Between 2011 and 2015, the Spanish and Swedish national health care systems did not grant comprehensive health care access to asylum seekers and undocumented immigrants. In these systems, regional health authorities were liable for the management and provision of health care, as they were better prepared to respond to the health needs of local communities. However, decentralization did not foment universal access. In Spain and Sweden, regions responded differently to the provision of health care access for these immigrant groups. Whereas Madrid and Västra Götaland followed the restrictive national guidelines on health care access for these targeted groups, Catalonia and Stockholm made efforts, although insufficient, to provide better assistance to their health care needs. Thus, Spain and Sweden failed to fulfill international and European legal obligations on health for immigrants. To guarantee health care access for asylum seekers and undocumented immigrants, better coordination between national and regional health authorities is essential. The application of Human Rights Based Approach (HRBA) tools can serve this purpose.

Korea is one of the countries in the Asia-Pacific region with the highest student net migration. An increasing number of international students, specifically from neighbouring Asian countries, have been moving to the country to pursue higher education. As one of such countries, the Philippines has a greater number of female students engaging in Korean study abroad programmes compared to their male counterparts. Recognizing the differences in educational principles and socio-cultural relations between the two countries, this research aims to explore the academic experiences and examine the gender identity and performance of Filipino female student migrants in Korea. This qualitative study was carried out by conducting in-depth interviews of five (5) Filipino female students enrolled in a graduate school programme in Korea at the time of study. As high-skilled women from a developing country, Filipino female students construct an understanding of the society they are in based on observations and experiences from both home and host cultures. In some cases, they choose to reconstruct their gender identity and performance to align them with Korean gender norms. The results of this study provide supplementary insights on educational migration and how this process affects gender relations.

Many stories have been told of how ‘hyenas’ facilitate undocumented migration and in the process negotiate and protect migrants from the much feared magumaguma who prey on the ‘innocent lives’ of would-be migrants desiring a better life in South Africa. The paper relies on first hand accounts of individuals who have crossed the Limpopo River and Zimbabwe-South Africa border as undocumented migrants. It utilises qualitative in-depth interviews of Zimbabwean migrants in Johannesburg. These individuals have had to deal with some, if not all, of the following: ‘hyenas’, crocodiles, magumaguma and the malayitsha. This paper demonstrates the central role of human smugglers such as the malayitsha and hyenas/impisi and the precarious nature of undocumented Zimbabwean migration showing the sheer will to survive against all odds; migrating to a perceived better life. Death will not deter migration or the aspiration to change one’s life by migrating. The paper creates a good case for the need for further research targeting the magumaguma and the malayitsha so that a critical mass of literature can be created on these human smugglers. This paper is important as it comes up with a conceptual framework on understanding undocumented Zimbabwean migration to South Africa.

Developing countries that want to sustain their economic development and close the economic gap between developed countries need foreign capital, especially because of insufficient domestic savings. In this context, there are many ways in which countries resort to attracting foreign capital. However, since the early 1990s, some countries have seen diaspora as a source of foreign capital they need and have developed methods for this source. One of these methods is the diaspora bond, which emerges as a new generation financial borrowing instrument and which has different advantages in terms of both the issuing country and the buyer compared to other financial instruments and is generally presented only to diaspora members. From this point of view, the aim of this study is to present the effectiveness of these diaspora bonds used as a new generation borrowing instrument and to provide an alternative source of foreign capital that Turkey needs in line with its economic objectives. It is also to raise awareness of this issue.

Europe has been experiencing an influx of migrants since mid-2015. Several people try to reach Europe in search of a better life away from their war-devastated homelands. Their first entry into Europe is mainly the countries close to their homelands. Greece, therefore, has been the focus of the international community due to vast numbers of persons reaching its shores every single day, especially since the escalation of the Syrian civil war. Selected as a hotspot, it received assistance from the European Union. On the other hand, Croatia has been unexpectedly subjected to thousands of migrants within a short period of time. Eventually, it was awarded financial support from the Union. Upon migrant crisis, the EU introduced new mechanisms to support the states facing migrant influx. In this article, measures and attempts by the European Union to support Greece and Croatia in handling the migrant crisis are reviewed. The article tries to answer to what extent such attempts have been successful in assisting Greece and Croatia.

State development in terms of innovative economy is of a great challenge. At the same time, innovative economy development is possible only with both human resources development and human capital quality upgrading. It is important both to develop and improve human capital assets in order to achieve necessary results. Not only human capital assets advancing relate to skills enhancing, but also brain migration policy regulating, scientific schools’ development as well as state policies aimed at market participants’ discrimination elimination. There are listed a number of factors affecting brain migration and innovative development which are closely interconnected. As a result, a gravity model of contemporary brain migration is developed.

From an Australian perspective, which can be extended to other countries’ migration frameworks, this study raises the notion that “uncertainty” negatively modulates systemic issues in recurring themes of human security violations, fraud and non-integration. Such understanding could lead to insights into migrants’ decision-making processes resulting in the subsequent use of unintended pathways. Literature and case study reviews were undertaken, coupled with a quantitative approach analysing retrospective data from the Department of Immigration and Border Protection and the Australian Federal Police to determine the ineffectiveness of current legislative tools that do not take certainty into account and to determine the impact of uncertainty on migrants in Australia’s migration program as a receiving country. Practical recommendations are presented for consideration by policy-makers to ensure certainty for the migrant, including; to combat human security violations via the provision of visa pathways for applicants to remain after lodging a complaint, ensuring that both employment and human securities can co-exist; to effectively control fraud via the removal of discretion, ensuring certainty in pathways of decision-making processes to combat unintended pathways; and finally, the permeation of certainty throughout the migration program, ensuring that steps to attain citizenship are not out of necessity but instead a step towards successful integration.

The migrant’s identity construction is a salient theme in the public and political integration debate in Germany as well as in other European countries. The Alevi community faces a variety of specific challenges in transnational space, such as the protection of its identity and the recognition of its cultural and religious differences. For Alevis, the prospect of being recognized both as a religious and cultural group and an immigrant group in Germany has created a growing social and political movement and a diaspora to Germany. Consequently, after more than 50 years, the children of Alevi migrants to Germany, especially of third generation, are starting to grow up in a transnational context within a diasporic consciousness.

Migration, language and identity are three interrelated concepts. These concepts have important effects on the lives of moving families, as their lives are social realities. In this research, it is aimed to focus on the 1989 migration from Bulgaria to Turkey in order to determine the problems especially language related problems, which people who immigrated in 1989 and afterwards to Turkey came across and their effects on their identities. To be able to find proper results qualitative method was used in this study. In-depth interviews were conducted to understand the difficulties in relation to language inabilities, adaptation problems, perceptions, acceptance or exclusion. So the research questions are: What were the problems of immigrants who moved from Bulgaria to Turkey? and How did these problems affect their identities?  The novelty of this research is that it is focused on not only to people who emigrated but also their children who were born either in Bulgaria or in Turkey. So, it is possible to make comparison among the people who lived the act of moving and their children whom may also have lived or just felt it in their lives. This also makes it possible to determine changes in time.

Limnos,  like many parts of Greece, experienced successive and long periods of foreign domination, traumas of war and economic devastation. During the decades of 1950’s - 1970’s, compounded by social and economic instability, many Limnian islanders arrived as young immigrants to Australia looking to build a ‘normal’ life. In this paper, through oral history case studies, I examine how the first and subsequent generations of migrants engage with concepts of home and belonging and the role of ethno-regionalism in the reconstruction and redefinition of identity in the diaspora. Ethno-regional identity, of interest in this research, remains both durable and significant as it reforms on foreign soil though it has received comparatively little academic attention. Identity formation and reformation and the role of ‘return’ visits to the ancestral home emerge as transnational patterns that lead to a rediscovered identity shaping the next generation. This ‘history from below’ is not only about the potential loss of Australian migration historiography, but also the legacy of the oral narrative that links the past with the lives and memories of the present and future descendants galvanising this community’s continuity.

European Turks have experienced a tough adaptation process in their host countries because of the coming back to their homeland possibility has considerably decreased. Although acquiring citizenship in the host countries has several achievements legally, they came across problems such as a crisis of religious and national identity, conflicts of generations and cultures, and alienation. Turkish immigrants have established a number of community organizations and solidarity networks within the framework of the legal rights granted to them by the host country, primarily to provide services in various areas. One of the organizations that has been founded by European Turks are mostly mosque based organizations.  The most important part of these organizations founded especially by Turkish immigrants who are close or sympathisers to religious groups and movements in Turkey or connected with them.

This paper aims to illustrate the trajectories of development of drug addiction among FSU immigrants, and to stress immigrant users' sense of loneliness as the core issue that characterizes these trajectories. The paper is based on a qualitative phenomenological study that explored the characteristics of drug abuse among FSU immigrant drug addicts in Israel. The information was gathered by interviewing 19 Russian-speaking recovering addict counselors employed in Israeli addiction treatment centers. The interview analysis yielded two main trajectories of addiction development among FSU immigrants. The most common one is characteristic of older users who immigrate with already-existing drug problems which almost always become aggravated after immigration. The second trajectory is typical of younger users who immigrate in late childhood and early adolescence, and start using drugs after immigration (and usually in proximity to it). The core issue that characterizes both trajectories is the immigrant users' sense of loneliness. Implications for prevention and treatment based on the interviewees’ reflections, as well as on extant literature, are discussed.

After their migration throughout the decade of 1920s, Pomak people underwent numerous cultural changes, especially in their languages. Being an endangered minority language, Pomak is a Slavic language which demonstrates a reciprocal effect with Turkish language in western parts of Turkey. Upon considering the current danger that Pomak is facing extinction, it would be beneficial to analyze the lexical and morphological differences in the Pomak language amongst the areas where Pomak minorities live. So as to gain necessary data three villages –Tayfur, Çanakkale; Toybelen, Balıkesir; Armağan, Kırklareli- in the Northwestern part of Turkey have been visited and Pomak people are firstly asked to translate fifty basic sentences, and later they are interviewed about the current status of Pomak in the area.

Rural economies in developing countries are often characterized by credit constraints.  Various studies confirm that rural labor migration in developing countries is an outcome of capital market imperfections. Lack of easy accessibility to credit followed by exorbitant rate of interest charged by informal sources of credit worsens the condition of poor households. Uttar Pradesh is among few most backward states of India and exhibits highest rate of male out-migration among all states (NSSO).  Although few attempt have been made to understand trends and patterns of male out-migration from Uttar Pradesh (UP) , there is dearth of literature on linkage between credit accessibility and male migration in rural Uttar Pradesh. The current study tries to fill this void. Objective of the study is to assess the role of credit accessibility in determining rural male migration. To meet the objective and to have better understanding of the role played by credit constraints in migration decisions, the study undertake primary survey of 370 households in six villages of Jaunpur district in UP. Simple statistical tools and binary logistic regression model have been used. The result of empirical analysis shows that accessibility and various sources of credit play very important role in male migration in rural UP. Study also found that relationship between credit constraints and migration varies across various social groups in UP. Thus more financial inclusion shall be encouraged in rural Uttar Pradesh and an attempt shall be made to ensure easy access of credit to rural households. Various ongoing schemes on financial inclusion shall be more properly implemented and encouraged among rural households to prevent them from various kinds of exploitation by local moneylender.

The issue of irregular migration in Turkey is gaining an increasingly important dimension. In the context of irregular migration, it is known that many foreigners use Turkey as a target or transit country for economic and political reasons. Only in 2016, 174,466 irregular migrants were apprehended in various regions of Turkey. This number has been increasing, especially in recent years. The current irregular migration movements in Turkey affect not only Turkey but also the European countries around it. In 2014, 280 thousand people illegally reached Europe by sea and land. In 2015, this number increased to 1,046,600. It is known that irregular migration concentrates on the Aegean, Mediterranean, and Marmara coasts. According to the Turkish Coast Guard Command, a total of 490 irregular migrants lost their lives while illegally trying to cross into European countries in 2015, 2016, and the first months of 2017. This picture makes it necessary to address the human dimension of irregular migration from a broader perspective. While coping with irregular migration, policies should be developed by keeping the human dimension of the subject in mind through investigating the causes that drive migrants to irregular migration. In parallel with this, fighting against human smugglers is indispensable. At this point, social work profession, which has to take an active role in the field of migration, must be maintained by improving its practices on the basis of human rights. While working with irregular migrants, social workers must stay away from stigmatizing and judicial attitudes and advocate for the protection of the human rights of these migrants.

Since the start of the Syrian Civil War, sexual violence has been rampant, causing most Syrians to cite rape as the primary reason for fleeing their home country. This paper explores the relationship between type of perpetrator and the use of sexual violence during armed conflict in the Syrian Arab Republic. This case study investigates pro-government, opposition, Kurdish, and jihadist groups and analyzes which groups utilize sexual violence and their motivations for doing so. The pro-government group includes the Syrian Arab Armed forces and the shabbiha militia. The jihadist group examined is ISIS, the opposition group is the Free Syrian Army (FSA), and the Kurdish group includes both the People’s Protection Units (YPG) and the Women’s Protection Units (YPJ). Sources for this research include various reports from non-profit and non-governmental organizations such as the Human Rights Watch, as well as reports from the Syrian Network for Human Rights, United States Department of State, and articles from various news outlets including the BBC. Throughout this case study, various subjects are discussed, including the importance of Syria’s history, the use of female combatants, the effects of masculinity and patriarchy on the prevalence of sexual violence, and the use of women as spoils of war. All of these phenomena play an important role in explaining how and why perpetrators use sexual violence. This research shows that sexual violence is used purposefully by jihadist and pro-government groups in Syria, but for differing reasons. Pro-government groups use sexual violence against any whom they perceive to be the enemy, which they believe is any Syrian against the Alawite (Shia) Assad regime. On the other hand, ISIS is more likely than pro-government groups to use women as spoils of war. This is because of the group’s emphasis on sexual jihad, and their need to recruit members. With the use of women as spoils of war, ISIS promises members that they can do as they please with these women. The fear of becoming a sex slave for ISIS also helps the group to enforce discipline on the regions they capture. While there is extensive literature regarding the subject of violence against women in conflict, this research is unique in its examination of different types of perpetrators with a narrow focus on Syria. Most importantly, this research provides insight for policy makers around the world regarding the creation of sustainable policy solutions to eliminate sexual violence during conflict.

In this study we analysed the perceptions about Syrian refugees as reflected in the newspapers. A qualitative design based on content analysis was adopted in this research. The news on Syrian refugees appeared in Hurriyet, Yeni Safak and Cumhuriyet newspapers between 1 January 2014 and 31 December 2014 have been analysed. These were classified on the basis of themes, styles, main concepts, and photographs used. Our findings show that, the political standing of the newspapers and their attitudes towards the Turkish government strongly affect the ways they shape the news about Syrian refugees.

From the mid-1950s through the mid-1980s, migration between Mexico and the United States constituted a stable system whose contours were shaped by social and economic conditions well-theorized by prevailing models of migration. It evolved as a mostly circular movement of male workers going to a handful of U.S. states in response to changing conditions of labour supply and demand north and south of the border, relative wages prevailing in each nation, market failures and structural economic changes in Mexico, and the expansion of migrant networks following processes specified by neoclassical economics, segmented labour market theory, the new economics of labour migration, social capital theory, world systems theory, and theoretical models of state behaviour. After 1986, however, the migration system was radically transformed, with the net rate of migration increasing sharply as movement shifted from a circular flow of male workers going a limited set of destinations to a nationwide population of settled families. This transformation stemmed from a dynamic process that occurred in the public arena to bring about an unprecedented militarization of the Mexico-U.S. border, and not because of shifts in social, economic, or political factors specified in prevailing theories. In this paper I draw on earlier work to describe that dynamic process and demonstrate its consequences, underscoring the need for greater theoretical attention to the self-interested actions of politicians, pundits, and bureaucrats who benefit from the social construction and political manufacture of immigration crises when none really exist.

Macedonia has a large diaspora, a high emigration rate and receives larger volume of remittances. This paper aims to describe the current inclination to emigrate from Macedonia, in the light of the dissatisfaction with the domestic political and economic environment and the potential feeling of gender and ethnic inequalities. Particular reference is made to the role of remittances. We use the Remittances Survey 2008 and treat dissatisfaction, feeling of inequality and inclination to emigrate as latent continuous variables in a MIMIC (Multiple-Indicator Multiple-Cause) model, observed only imperfectly in terms of respondents’ perceptions and opinions. Results suggest that dissatisfaction with the societal conditions in Macedonia grows among those who are at their 20s and early 30s, which is more prevalent among ethnic Albanians. Compared to others, Albanians also demonstrate stronger feeling of gender and ethnic inequality. Dissatisfaction, but not the feeling of inequality, then feeds inclination to emigrate. Further to this, however, males and less educated persons are more inclined to emigrate, irrespective of their level of dissatisfaction. We find remittances to play a strong role for the inclination to emigrate: the inclination is larger in households receiving remittances and increases with the amount received, as it is likely that remittances alleviate financial constraints for other persons of the household to emigrate.

This paper critiques the common practice of people from refugee backgrounds giving presentations and testimonials on their displacement experiences, in college, university, and similar institutional settings. While such speaking events may be framed as opportunities to center refugee voices, this paper argues that the totality of the presentation environments, especially their focus on narratives of suffering, do in fact reinforce the marginal and powerless position with which refugees are associated. To counteract the marginalizing effects of such presentations, the paper suggests alternative ways of presentations that more meaningfully involve refugees in framing and directing such speaking events.

Göç ve Edebiyat konusuna ayırmış olduğumuz bu sayımıza katkıda bulunan tüm yazar ve hakemlerimize özellikle teşekkür ederek başlamalıyız. Hem Türkiye’de hem de Avrupa’da göç giderek önemi artan bir mesele olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Türkiye gibi en azından yakın tarihi kitlesel ve yoğun göç deneyimleriyle örülü bir ülkedeki ve onu yurtdışına uzanan nüfusundan çıkan yazınsal yapıtların de göç olgusuna yabancı kalmalarını tahayyül etmek güçtür. Bu özel sayı ile özellikle bu alana yeni bir soluk ve açılım getirmeyi amaçladık. Bu bağlamda, 25-27 Haziran 2015 tarihleri arasında Prag’da üçüncüsünü düzenlediğimiz uluslararası Türk Göç Konferansı’nda da göç ve edebiyat konusuna öncelikli bir yer ayırdık. Görece geride kalmış bu alandaki araştırmaların ve kuramsal çalışmaların gelişmesi açısından iki girişimin de önemli fırsatlar sunduğunu ve özendirici bir nitelik taşıdığını düşünüyoruz.

Yazmak, yalnızlaştıran bir deneyimdir. Beyaz sayfa, bir lambanın yalın aydınlığında Mallarmé’nin başını döndüren o yalnızlığı, yani bu korkunç düşünceyi dayatır. O, bu zorluğu ancak lambayı kendisinden uzaklaştırarak aşabilmiştir: “karanlık bir alan üzerine, parlak bir biçimde yazı yazılmaz”.  Kendi deyimiyle “kendisi yazından başka şey olmayan” Kafka, Felice’ye eşsiz tasarısından söz eder: yazmak için gerekli olan ne varsa alıp, ıssız geniş bir mahzenin ortasına bir lamba ile yerleşmek. “Yazarken asla yeterince yalnız olmayız” der, “yazarken çevrenizde asla yeterince sessizlik olmaz, gece yeteri kadar gece değildir”.



ENGLISH ABSTRACT

Writing is act making you lonely. Head spinning loneliness is a scary thought comes to Mallarme in front of a blank page and a lamp. Mallarme had overcome this only by moving the lamp away: "you cannot write bright on a dark space". Kafka, who is simply literature, tells Fellice about his unqiue design: taking all you need to write and settling down in a quite dungeon with a lamp. He says that "you cannot be adequately alone when writing; night is not night enough".

Bu makalede, Bulgaristan Türklerinin 1989’da yaşadığı zorunlu göçün, bu sancılı sürece maruz kalan Bulgaristan Türk şairlerinin eserlerinde ne şekilde ele alındığı incelenmiştir. Makalenin amacı, 1989 zorunlu göçünün şiirin diliyle yazılan kapsamlı bir tarihçesini oluşturarak, edebiyatın tanıklık gücünü sergilemektir. Çalışmada, şiirin “tanıklık gücü” terimi ile göç konulu şiirlerin okurun dikkatini sürekli şiir metninden gerçek olayın kendisine (zorunlu göçe) doğru yönlendirerek, bu eserlerin tarih yazımını onaylama/sorgulama gücü ifade edilir. Çalışma, Bulgaristan hükümetinin 1989’da zorunlu göçle noktaladığı etnik eritme politikasının kısa bir tanıtımından sonra, bu sürecin farklı aşamalarını ele alan şiirlerle örneklendirir. 1989 zorunlu göçünü ele alan şiirler, iki alt başlık altında incelenmiştir: 1. Ayrılık şiirleri; 2. Kavuşma şiirleri. Ayrılık şiirleri, Bulgaristan Türklerinin doğup büyüdükleri ülkelerinden kovulmalarını yoğun bir hüzün duygusu ile anlatırken, totaliter rejimin akıl almaz politikalarını da lanetleyen eserlerdir. İkinci bölüm, Anavatan Türkiye’ye ulaşmanın coşku dolu mutluluğunu milliyetçi bir söylemle aktaran örneklerin irdelenmesi ile başlayıp, göçün doğurduğu özlem ve bölünmüşlük (ne Türkiyeli ne Bulgaristanlı olma durumu) gibi duygularla yüklü şiirlerin incelenmesi ile devam eder. Bu döneme ait bazı şiirlerin yansıttığı derin milliyetçilik ruhunu açıklamak için, çalışmaya göç öncesinde yaşanan baskıları anlatan şiirler de dahil edilmiştir.



ENGLISH ABSTRACT

The testimonial power of poetry: representation of the 1989 forced migration in the poetry of the Turks from Bulgaria

The article focuses on the representation of the 1989 Forced Migration (of the Turks from Bulgaria to Turkey) in the works of Turkish poets from Bulgaria who have themselves been victims of this tragic event. Providing a comprehensive poetic chronicle of the migration, the article aims to illustrate the testimonial function of poetry, namely its power to complement and/or challenge historiography by constantly pushing the reader’s attention from the poetic text to the original event (the forced migration) itsef. After a brief discussion of the 1989 Forced Migration as part of the assimilation policy of the Bulgarian Government, the article examines poems which reconstruct different stages of the process. The poems are divided into two main groups. The first group (departure poems) consists of works which illustrate the migrants’ painful separation from their birthplaces, relatives and neighbors. Infused with deep grief, they provide a mighty indictment of the policy of the totaliterian regime. The second group (arrival poems) starts with a discussion of poems which reveal the migrants’ joyful unification with the rescuing image of the Motherland (Turkey) and goes on with the analysis of works which report the subsequent stages in the migrant’s life which are marked by a sense of nostalgia and liminality.  To explain the mood of strong nationalism which governs the majority of the poems, this section includes also works which report the repressions the migrants had been subjected to prior to their flight to Turkey.

Göç, toplumbilimsel açıdan, insanların ekonomik, toplumsal ve siyasal nedenlerle, bulundukları uzamdan geçici ya da sürekli olarak başka bir uzama yerleşmeleri olarak tanımlanır. “Uzamın”, “işin” ve “toplumsal ilişkilerin” değişmesi gibi parametreler üzerine kurulur; iç ve dış göç olmak üzere  ikiye ayrılır. Ülkemizin iç ve dış göç gerçeği yazında da sıklıkla ele alınır. Bu bağlamda Gaye Hiçyılmaz, ülkemizin iç göç gerçeğini ele aldığı Fırtınaya Karşı adlı yapıtında, kırdan kente  büyük umutlarla  “gönüllü” ya da “zorunlu göç” eden ailelerin yaşadığı düş kırıklıklarını gündeme getirir. Bu çalışmada, Fırtınaya Karşı (Hiçyılmaz, 1992, s. 53), göç kuramcıları arasında yerini alan Everett S. Lee’nin “itme-çekme modeli”ne göre değerlendirilmiştir. “İtici”/olumsuz (-) ve “çekici”/olumlu (+) faktörleri kapsayan modele göre, insanlar yaşadıkları uzamdan bir takım “itici faktörler”den dolayı ayrılarak, kendilerini “çekici faktörler”in beklediğine inandıkları başka uzamlara göç ederler. Birbirinden farklı olan bu faktörler, bireylerin beklentileriyle yakından ilgilidir. Göçün ardından, psikolojik uyum sorunu yaşanır ve beraberinde “bütünleşme”, “ayrışma”, “marjinelleşme” ve “asimilasyon” kavramlarını getiren  “kültürlenme” süreci başlar. Kırdan kente göç üzerine kurulan roman boyunca okur, “kır insanının” kendisine nasıl yabancılaştığına, ne yaparsa yapsın kentle gerçek anlamda asla bütünleşemediğine ve hep iki uzam arasında yani “araf”ta kaldığına tanık olur. Romanı büyükbabanın söylediği atasözüyle özetlemek olasıdır: “Güzel tüyler takınmakla tavus kuşu olunmaz”.

Migration, with regard to sociology, is defined as settling from the location they live into another place temporarily or permanently due to economic,  social and political reasons. It is built on the parameters such as the change of “location”, “work”, and “social relations”, and divided into two as internal migration and emigration. The reality of internal migration and emigration in our country is tackled in literature.  In this context, Gaye Hiçyılmaz, in her work Fırtınaya Karşı, in which she lays emphasis on the reality of internal migration of our country, brings forward the disillusions of the families immigrating to  urban from rural “voluntarily” or “involuntarily” with great expectations. In this article, Fırtınaya Karşı, has been examined in accordance with the “push and pull-” model of Everett S. Lee taking her place among the migration theorists. According to the model including “pushing”/negative and “pulling”/positive factors, leaving the currently lived place because of some “pushing factors”, people immigrate to the locations they believe “pulling factors” wait for them.  These factors which are different from each other are related to individuals’ expectations. Behind migration, the problem of psychological rapport appears and the “acculturation” process, bringing the concepts “integration”, “separation”, “marginalisation” and “assimilation”, starts. Throughout the novel built on the immigration from rural to urban, the reader witnesses how “rural people” feel alineated from themselves, whatever they do they never integrate into urban in real terms, and they are between these two places, that is they stay in “limbo”.  It is possible to summarize the novel with a proverb the grandfather says: “Putting on beautiful feathers does not make you a peacock.”



ENGLISH ABSTRACT

Internal migration in the context of pushing and pulling factors: Fırtınaya Karşı by Gaye Hiçyilmaz

Migration, with regard to sociology, is defined as settling from the location they live into another place temporarily or permanently due to economic, social and political reasons. It is built on the parameters such as the change of “location”, “work”, and “social relations”, and divided into two as internal migration and emigration. The reality of internal migration and emigration in our country is tackled in literature.  In this context, Gaye Hiçyılmaz, in her work Fırtınaya Karşı, in which she lays emphasis on the reality of internal migration of our country, brings forward the disillusions of the families immigrating to  urban from rural “voluntarily” or “involuntarily” with great expectations. In this article, Fırtınaya Karşı, has been examined in accordance with the “push and pull-” model of Everett S. Lee taking her place among the migration theorists. According to the model including “pushing”/negative and “pulling”/positive factors, leaving the currently lived place because of some “pushing factors”, people immigrate to the locations they believe “pulling factors” wait for them.  These factors which are different from each other are related to individuals’ expectations. Behind migration, the problem of psychological rapport appears and the “acculturation” process, bringing the concepts “integration”, “separation”, “marginalisation” and “assimilation”, starts. Throughout the novel built on the immigration from rural to urban, the reader witnesses how “rural people” feel alineated from themselves, whatever they do they never integrate into urban in real terms, and they are between these two places, that is they stay in “limbo”.  It is possible to summarize the novel with a proverb the grandfather says: “Putting on beautiful feathers does not make you a peacock.”

II. Dünya Savaşı’nın yarattığı ekonomik bunalımdan sonra Avrupa ekonomisi kalkınmaya başladığında yeni iş gücüne duyulan ihtiyaç, çeşitli ülkelerden sağlanmaya çalışıldı.1960'lı yıllarda önemli miktarda işçi, geçici bir süre için gittiklerini düşünerek ülkelerinden göçtüler. Göçmek eylemi TDK Türkçe Sözlüğünde, "kendi ülkesinden ayrılarak yerleşmek için başka ülkeye giden (kimse, aile veya topluluk)", "bir ülkeden bir başka ülkeye yerleşmek amacıyla giden kişi, aile ya da toplumsal küme" ve "genellikle yerleşmek amacıyla, bir yerleşim yerinden bir başka yerleşim yerine, bir ülkeden bir başka ülkeye gitme eylemi" gibi hiçbir kötü, ayrımcı veya ırkçı anlam içermeyen ve "yerleşme" tasavvurunu içinde barındıran bir kavram olarak verilmektedir. Yazınsal ifade ise insanın varoluş sorununun çevirisidir, dışa vurumudur. Dil seçimi yazarda içsel, kimliksel ve ruhsal gerilimi gösterir. Yazar için dilsel seçim kimliksel bir göstergedir, ötekinin dilinde yazmak ister ideolojik ister sembolik olsun, bir çeşit yabancılaşma ve ihanet gibi algılanabilir, içsel acıların ve gerilimlerin belirtisidir. Çok dilli bireyler, kullandıkları ve kimliklerinin bir parçasını oluşturan dillere bağlılık duymaktadırlar. Bu araştırmada söz konusu edilen göçmenlerin yarattıkları metinlerden yola çıkarak okura yansıyan çok dilliliği ve çok kültürü, seslerini duyurmaya ve kültürler arası bir iletişim kurmaya çalışan göçmenlerin ilk kuşağının seslenişlerini yazılı metinlerinde var olan kültür şokunu ortaya koymaktadır.



ABSTRACT

Migration from Turkey into Europe and texts produced by migrants

In 1960s, a considerable number of workers emigrated from their countries, assuming that they were leaving there temporarily. The act of migrating is defined in the monolingual Turkish Dictionary of the Turkish Language Association (TDK) as "the one (person, family or community) who leaves his/her country and goes to another country in order to settle there", "a person, family or social group who travels from one country to another with the aim of settling there" and "the act of going from one settlement to another, from one country to another generally with the aim of settling", which do not refer to any bad, discriminating or racist meaning and that comprise the conception of "settling". Literary expression, on the other hand, is the translation and expression of the problem of human existence. The choice of language reveals the internal, identity-related and psychological tension in the author. This choice is an indicator of identity for the author. Whether it’s ideological or symbolic, writing in the language of the other might be acknowledged as a sort of alienation and betrayal. It is the indicator of inner suffering and tension. Multilingual individuals feel attached to the language they use and that constitute a part of their identity. This study dwells upon the multilinguality and the multiculture that reflect upon the reader, the calls of the first generation of the migrants who tried to make their voices heard and to  communicate interculturally and the culture shock observed in their writing through the texts produced by the said migrants

“Göç” gibi sosyal bir hadisenin edebiyatta en azından tematik anlamda yer almaması düşünülemezdi. Bu bağlamda, insanlığın ilk sözlü edebî ürünlerinden günümüze değin “göç” olgusunun izdüşümleri edebî üretime yansımış, sözlü dönemlerin “göç destanları”ndan günümüzün “Göçmen Edebiyatı” olarak adlandırılan kavramına kadar, edebiyatın “göç” olgusunu hem tema/izlek belirlerken hem de retorik oluşturmada bir malzeme olarak kullandığı görülmektedir. Bu noktada kritik soru, edebiyat-göç arasındaki ilişkinin araç mı yoksa amaç mı olduğudur. Edebiyatçıların kimi zaman göçü edebî üretimine taşıdığı ve ondan yararlandığı, kimi zaman da “göç”ün, göçmen kökenli temsilciler aracılığıyla kendisine müstakil bir edebiyat ortamı oluşturduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Gelinen aşamada edebiyat ve göç arasındaki bu çift yönlü ilişkinin daha belirgin bir hâl aldığı kuşkusuzdur. Bu makalede, Türk edebiyatı özelinde -aralarında sıkı bir bağ bulunduğu açık olan- edebiyat-göç ilişkisinin boyutları ve iki olgunun kesiştiği noktada, birbirlerinden nasıl yararlandıkları tarihsel ve sosyolojik yöntemle ele alınmıştır. Söz konusu edebiyatın adlandırılması ve kapsam alanına dair tespitler ise çeşitli göçmen edebiyatlarının bütüncül bir yaklaşımla karşılaştırmalı olarak değerlendirilmesi sonucu elde edilmiştir.



ENGLISH ABSTRACT

An analyse on immigration and immigrant literature in our literature

It is not possible to think of migration, as a social fact, without having its own place in the literature, at least thematically. In this context, from the first oral literature samples until today, “migration” has been reflected to literary production. From “oral epics” of the verbal times to the so called “immigrant literature” of today, literature uses the phenomenon of migration for deciding the theme and creating rhetorical. The critical question at this point is whether the relationship between literature and migration is the mean or the purpose. Poets and writers sometimes bring and make use of migration in their works, and they sometimes establish an independent literary environment through immigrant representatives. Today, the bi-directional relationship between literature and migration has become more obvious. In this article, specific to Turkish literature, we will discuss dimensions of literature- migration relationship (which is quite apparent) by using historical and sociological methods and how they benefit from each other. We found that if one must name the literature and determine its scope, various immigrant literature should be evaluated in a holistic-comparative way.

Yarım aşırı aşan bir geçmişe sahip Almanya’ya göç olgusu beraberinde önemli bir edebi birikimi (Migrantenliteratur) de getirmiştir. Farklı adlandırmalar ile anılan bu edebi birikim, kendi içinde de farklı renkleri de barındıran bir özelliğe sahiptir. Edebi yazını besleyen en önemli kaynaklardan biri toplumdur. Yazarın içinde yaşadığı toplumsal yapı ve problemler üstü kapalı veya açık bir şekilde onun yazılarına yansımaktadır. Bu bağlamda araştırma, 50’li yaşlarında Almanya’ya giden ve ömrünün sonuna kadar orada yaşayan, birçok edebi ve düşünsel çalışması ile Türk edebiyatında önemli bir isim olan Fakir Baykurt’un “Koca Ren” ve Yüksek Fırınlar” adlı romanları ile birlikte Duisburg Üçlemesi’nin son kitabı olan “Yarım Ekmek” romanında ele aldığı konu ve roman kahramanları üzerinden din ve gelenek olgusu sosyolojik bir yaklaşımla ele alınmaktadır. Toplumcu-gerçekçi çizgide yer alan yazarın, uzun yıllar yaşadığı Türkiye’deki siyasi ve ideolojik geçmişi bu romanda kullandığı dil ve kurguladığı kahramanlarda kendini göstermektedir. Romanda Almanya’nın Duisburg şehrinde yaşayan Türklerin yeni kültürel ortamda yaşadıkları çatışma, kültürel şok, arada kalmışlık, iki kültürlülük temaları ön plandadır. Yazar romanda sadece Almanya’daki Türkleri ele almamakta, aynı zamanda Türkiye ile hatta başka ülkeler ile de ilişkilendirmeler yaparak bireysel ve toplumsal konuları ele almaktadır. Araştırmada, romanda yer alan dini ve geleneksel unsurlar sosyolojik olarak analiz edilmiştir. Genel anlamda bir göç romanı olma özelliği yanında Yarım Ekmek romanında dini, siyasi ve ideolojik birçok yorum ve tartışma söz konusudur. Romandaki bu veriler, inanç, ritüel, siyaset ve toplumsal boyutlarda kategorize edilerek ele alınmıştır.



ENGLISH ABSTRACT

Religion and identity reflections in literature of immigrant: Religion and Tradition in Fakir Baykurt’s novel Yarım Ekmek

The immigration fact which has nearly half century in Germany have brought a significant literal accumulation (Migrantenliteratur) in its wake. This literal accumulation, which is named as several denominations, has a feature including different colours in itself. One of the most important source snourishing literature is society. Societal structure and problems that the writer lives inside, directly or indirectly reflect on his/her compositions. In this context, the matter of religion and tradition by way of the issue and fictious characters in the novel of Fakir Baykurt who went to Germany in her 50’s and lived in there till his death and who is a considerable name in Turkish literature with his several literal and intellectual workings; “Yarım Ekmek” which is the third novel of Duisburg Trilogy with “Koca Ren” and “Yüksek Fırınlar” are discussed sociologically in the study. The political and ideological past of the socialist realist lined writer in Turkey where he spent his life for a long time, manifest itself on the speech and fictious characters of novel. In the novel, themes of new Turks’ conflict, cultural shock, being in the middle, bi culturalism in their new cultural nature in Duisburg which is the city they live in. The writer not only deals with Turks in Germany but also personal and social subjects via comparing them to Turkey and even other countries. In the study, religious and traditional elements analyzed sociologically. Besides the speciality of being a migration novel in general, there are a lot of religious, political and ideological interpretations and discussions in the novel. These datum in the novel are examinated in the context of belief, ritual, politics and social categorisation.

Yahya Kemal 1903-1912 yılları arasında dokuz sene boyunca ülkesinden uzakta, Paris’te yaşamıştır. O yıllarda Türk entelektüellerinin gitmeye can attığı bir kenttir Paris. Yahya Kemal için de bu yolculuk, her şeyden önce kültürel bir zorunluluktur. Ancak o, Fransız kültüründen ve genel anlamda Batı medeniyetinden etkilenmekle birlikte, kendi kültürel mirasını gözardı etmeyecek ve Paris’te Osmanlı şiirini ve tarihini inceleyecek, kültürel kimlik meseleleri üzerinde derinden düşünecektir. Diğer taraftan, Yahya Kemal’in yolculuğunun kişisel ve psikolojik bir boyutu da vardır. Bu boyutun en önemli bileşenini şairin henüz on üç yaşındayken kaybettiği annesi oluşturur. Bu yazıda, Yahya Kemal’in yolculuğunun nasıl şiirsel bir yolculuğa dönüştüğü, metaforlar üzerinden gösterilmeye çalışılacaktır.



ENGLISH ABSTRACT

Journey and poetry’s existential adventure in Yahya Kemal

Yahya Kemal has lived far from his country, in Paris, between 1903 and 1912. In those years Turkish intellectuals are longing to go to this town. For Yahya Kemal, this journey is above all, a cultural necessity. Although he is influenced by French culture and by Occidental civilization, he will not neglect his cultural heritage and will study Ottoman poetry and history and will meditate on cultural identity issues during his stay in Paris. In addition, Yahya Kemal’s journey has also a personal and psychological aspect. His mother whom he has lost when he was only thirteen years old constitutes the main component of this aspect. This article aims to show, by way of keeping track of metaphors, how Yahya Kemal’s journey is transformed to a poetic journey.

Saniye Dedeoğlu (2014). Migrants, Work and Social Integration,  Women’s Labour in Turkish Ethnic Economy (Göçmenler, Çalışma ve Sosyal Entegrasyon, Türkiyelilerin Etnik Ekonomisinde Kadın Emeği). Migration, Diasporas and Citizenship Series, Palgrave-Macmillan, ISBN: 9781137371119, 1. Baskı, 202 Sayfa.

Göç, göçmenler ve çalışma hayatı konuları akademik yazında üzerinde çokça çalışılan alanlardır. Bu çerçevede 2014 yılında yayınlanan Göçmenler, Çalışma ve Sosyal Entegrasyon / Türkiyelilerin Etnik Ekonomisinde Kadın Emeği isimli, önsöz kısmında bir nevi kendi durduğu yeri ve pozisyonu tarif ettiği kitabıyla, Dedeoğlu, göç, emek piyasaları ve sosyal entegrasyon literatürüne, toplumsal cinsiyet perspektifiyle katkıda bulunmaktadır. Avrupa toplumlarındaki sosyoekonomik dönüşümlere toplumsal cinsiyet ve göç çalışmaları yoluyla eğilmenin ve bu dönüşümlerde kadınların etkisinin/rolünün ortaya konulmasının önemine işaret eden kitap, yazarın sözleriyle, bir kadın tarafından yazılmış, kadınların seslerinin, yaşamlarının ve hikâyelerinin ifade edildiği, Türkiyeli topluluğun Britanya’ya göçünün hikâyesi olarak tarif edilebilir.Londra’da kadınlar, işyeri sahipleri, aileler ve topluluk liderleriyle derinlemesine görüşmelerin ve gözlemlerin yapıldığı, 15 aylık alan araştırması üzerine kurgulanmış bu kitapta özetle Londra’daki Türkiyelilerin etnik ekonomisinde kadın emeği/çalışması ve Türkiyelilerin sosyal entegrasyonu ve Türkiyeli toplumun toplumsal cinsiyet ideolojilerinin ve yapısının kadınlar üzerindeki sonuçları işlenmektedir.

Yazmak, yalnızlaştıran bir deneyimdir. Beyaz sayfa, bir lambanın yalın aydınlığında Mallarmé’nin başını döndüren o yalnızlığı, yani bu korkunç düşünceyi dayatır. O, bu zorluğu ancak lambayı kendisinden uzaklaştırarak aşabilmiştir: “karanlık bir alan üzerine, parlak bir biçimde yazı yazılmaz”.  Kendi deyimiyle “kendisi yazından başka şey olmayan” Kafka, Felice’ye eşsiz tasarısından söz eder: yazmak için gerekli olan ne varsa alıp, ıssız geniş bir mahzenin ortasına bir lamba ile yerleşmek. “Yazarken asla yeterince yalnız olmayız” der, “yazarken çevrenizde asla yeterince sessizlik olmaz, gece yeteri kadar gece değildir”.

 

ENGLISH ABSTRACT

Writing is act making you lonely. Head spinning loneliness is a scary thought comes to Mallarme in front of a blank page and a lamp. Mallarme had overcome this only by moving the lamp away: "you cannot write bright on a dark space". Kafka, who is simply literature, tells Fellice about his unqiue design: taking all you need to write and settling down in a quite dungeon with a lamp. He says that "you cannot be adequately alone when writing; night is not night enough".

This review analyses the recent contributions of Elise Massicard and Markus Dressler to Alevi studies. While Massicard employs methods of political sociology and transna-tional identity politics, Dressler is concerned with the intrinsic relation between the religious and the secular as well as the place of religion in nation-state building projects. Massicard argues that formulating Alevism is context and actor dependent and shaped simultaneously in its interaction with diverse actors, which she calls identity movement without an identity. The emphasis on the audience in defining Alevism might stem from the inadequacy of the universal language of religion to accommodate Alevi expression. Similarly, Dressler argues that the modern Alevi tradition was constructed at the intersection of Turkish nation building, modern religion discourse and Islamic apologetics and criticises the modernist discourse on religion such as the heterodoxy/orthodoxy binary for its insufficiency to capture the complexities of different contexts.

Turkey’s rising leftist student movement in the late 1960s admired the Palestinian Fedayeen movement and considered it as a school for their own future struggle. In the late 1960s young Turkish-Kurdish leftist students went to Palestinian guerilla camps in Lebanon to be trained in preparation for armed struggle in Turkey. That relationship gained new momentum following the 1980 military coup in Turkey, which heavily impacted Turkish and Kurdish radical movements. The Palestinian camps turned out to be a major retreat for these Turkish-Kurdish groups, among whom the PKK was a primary beneficiary. The PKK seized this opportunity not only for military training but also for organisational recovery which almost no other Turkish or Kurdish movement managed. This article aims to trace the relationship between Turkish-Kurdish radical movements and Palestinian organisations, focusing mainly on the PKK. I argue that the PKK has made use of this relationship in realising the so-called “Palestinian Dream” within the Kurdish context.



“Xewna Felestînê” li meydana kurdî

Kurte Hereketa xwendekarên çepgir ya Tirkiyeyê, ku di dawiya salên 60an de bihêz dibû, bi hijmekarî bal û nezera xwe dabûne ser hereketa “Feda’îyên Felestînê” û ew wek mektebekê didîtin ji bo têkoşîna xwe ya paşerojê. Dawiya salên 60an, xwendekarên ciwan ên çepgir ên tirk û kurd çûne nav kempên gerîlayên Felestînê li Lubnanê da ku xwe ji bo têkoşîna çekdarî li Tirkiyeyê amade bikin. Ew têkilî piştî derbeya leşkerî ya 1980an li Tirkiyeyê hêj bihêztir bû û tesîreke mezin li hereketên radîkal ên tirk û kurd kir. Kempên Felestînê bûne stargehên girîng ji bo van komên tirk-kurd, ku ji nav wan herî zêde PKKyê sûd jê wergirt. PKKyê ev îmkan ne tenê ji bo perwerdeya leşkerî lê herwiha ji bo selihandin û biserxwedehatina xwe ya rêxistînî jî bi kar anî, ya ku ti yek ji hereketên tirk-kurd ên din nekarîbûn pêk bînin. Ev gotar dikeve pey têkiliya di navbera hereketên radîkal ên tirk-kurd û rêxistinên Felestînî de, lê bi taybetî li ser PKKyê hûr dibe, û nîşan dide ku PKKyê ji vê îmkanê wisa îstifade kiriye ku “Xewna Felestînê” li meydana kurdî pêk bîne.

When founded in 1978, the PKK defined itself as a socialist movement aiming to create a classless society through the formation of a new state-power. In the 1990s, the ideology of the PKK began to change and this transformation became apparent in the 2000s. The PKK has since completely abandoned its statist Marxist-Leninist national liberationist ideology, and has instead proposed to build “democratic modernity” through the creation of an anti-capitalist, anti-industrialist, women emancipatory and ecologist “democratic confederalism” framework. This project defines the ecologist-rural communes grounded on food sovereignty as its basic economic units. This article argues that the transformation of the PKK’s goals on the political economy of the Kurdish region is shaped by, on the one hand, the world systemic and internal restraints acting upon the PKK, and on the other hand, the ideological responses of the PKK to those restraints.

Keywords: The PKK; Abdullah Öcalan; democratic modernity; democratic confederalism; anti-capitalist movements.

Guherîna îdeolojîk di PKKyê de û aboriya siyasî ya herêma kurdî li Tirkiyeyê
Gava di sala 1978an de hate damezrandin, PKKyê xwe wek hereketeke sosyalîst pênase kiribû û armanca xwe wisa danîbû ku civakeke bêçîn durist bike bi rêya avakirina desthilata dewleteke nû. Di salên 1990an de îdeolojiya PKKyê dest bi guherînê kir û di salên 2000an de ev guherîn pir aşkera bû. Ji hingê ve, PKKyê bi temamî dest ji îdeolojiya xwe ya Marksî-Lenînî ya azadiya neteweyî kêşaye, li batî wê, ragihandiye ku dixwaze “modernîteya demokratîk” ava bike bi rêya duristkirina çarçoveyeke “konfederaliya demokratîk” a dij-sermayedarî, dij-endûstrîgerî, jin-rizgarkerane û ekolojîk. Di vê projeyê de yekeyên aborî yên esasî ew komûnên ekolojîst-gundî ne ku li ser serbixweyiya xwe ya xurekî pêk hatine (anku ji bo bidestxistina xureka xwe ne muhtacê derve ne). Ev gotar diyar dike ku guherînên di armancên PKKyê yên li ser aboriya siyasî ya herêma kurdî, ji aliyekê ve, ji ber wan zext û berbest û mehdûdiyetên sîstemî yên global û navxweyî pêk hatine ku kar di PKKyê dikin, ji aliyê dî ve, ji ber bersivên îdeolojîk ên PKKyê ne bo wan berbest û mehdûdiyetan.

Adem Uzun, “Living Freedom”: The Evolution of the Kurdish Conflict in Turkey and the Efforts to Resolve it. Berghof Transitions Series No. 11. Berlin: Berghof Foundation, 2014. 48 pp., (ISBN: 978-3-941514-16-4).

Ebru Sönmez, Idris-i Bidlisi: Ottoman Kurdistan and Islamic Legitimacy, Libra Kitap, Istanbul, 2012, 190 pp., (ISBN: 978-605-4326-56-3).



Sabri Ateş, The Ottoman–Iranian Borderlands: Making a Boundary, 1843-1914, New York; Cambridge University Press, 2013. 366., (ISBN: 978-1107033658). 

Choman Hardi, Gendered Experiences of Genocide: Anfal Survivors in Kurdistan-Iraq. Farnham, Surrey and Burlington Vermont: Ashgate, 2011, xii + 217 pp., (ISBN: 978-0-7546-7715-4).

Harriet Allsopp, The Kurds of Syria: Political Parties and Identity in the Middle East, London and New York, I.B. Tauris, 2014, 299 pp., (ISBN: 978-1780765631).

Khanna Omarkhali (ed.), Religious Minorities in Kurdistan: Beyond the Mainstream [Studies in Oriental Religions, Volume 68], Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2014, xxxviii + 423 pp., (ISBN: 978-3-447-10125-7).

Anna Grabole-Çeliker, Kurdish Life in Contemporary Turkey: Migration, Gender and Ethnic Identity, London: I.B. Taurus, 2013, 299 pp., (ISBN: 978-1780760926).

In this paper I review a semantic analysis of the Badini Kurdish modal particles dê and da (Unger, 2012). This analysis claims that the modal particles are procedural indicators in the sense of Blakemore (2002) triggering cognitive inferential procedures relating to assessing the speaker's commitment to the veracity of the communicated content and to the speaker's reliability for making true claims about the eventualities described. Since audiences interpret utterances for optimal relevance following a path of least effort (Sperber and Wilson 1995), these minimal clues for constraining the pragmatic interpretation process are enough to guide audiences arriving at the temporal, modal and aspectual interpretations intended by the speaker. I argue that the standard Kurmanji particle wê triggers slightly different procedures than Badini dê. These differences provide semantic explanations to variation in Northern Kurdish dialects with respect to the indication of future time and with reference to possible but non-factual worlds.



Pirtikên raweyî yên dê û da di kurdiya badînî de: semantîka prosedûrî û cudatiyên zimanî ya navxweyî

Di vê meqaleyê de ez vedigerime ser tehlîleke semantîk (Unger, 2012) a pêştir li ser pirtikên raweyî (modal particles) yên dê û da di kurdiya badînî de. Îdiaya vê tehlîlê ew e ku ev pirtikên raweyî nîşanên prosedûrî ne, li dû pênaseya Blakemore (2002), ku rê li ber prosedûrên hişî yên bimenakirinê vedikin ku ew prosedûr fikrekê didin derheqê pabendiya axêverî bi rastbûna muhtewayê axiftinê û derheqê pêbaweriya axêverî ji bo derbirîna gotinên rast li ser encam û muhtewayê axiftinê. Ji ber ku guhdar bêjeyan bi awayê herî zêde pêwendîdar û bi serfkirina kêmtirîn hewlan şîrove dikin (Sperber û Wilson, 1995), ev serben û nîşanên mînîmal yên destnîşankirina çeperên proseya şîrovekirina mercî bes in ku guhdar bikarin pê bigihine wan şîroveyên demî, raweyî û aspektî ku mebesta axêver in. Herwiha diyar dibe ku pirtika wê ya kurmanciya standard prosedûrên hinek cudatir ji yên dê ya badînî feal dike. Ev cudatî ye li pişt cihêrengiya zaravayên kurmanciyê ya di nîşandana dema tê de û di amajeya bi cîhanên mumkin lê ne waqi’î.



ئامرازەکانی پەیوەندیدار بە کردار، دێ و دا لە کوردیی بادینیدا: ماناناسی ڕێکاری و جیاوازی زمانی



لەم وتارەدا هەوڵ دەدەم پێداچوونەوەیەکم بۆ شیکاری ماناناسیانەی ئامرازەکانی پەیوەندیدار بە کردار لە کوردیی بادینیدا وەکوو دێ و دا هەبێت (ئانگر، ٢٠١٢). ئەم شیکارییە داخوازی ئەوە دەکات کە ئامرازەکانی پەیوەندیدار بە کردار بەو مانایەی کە لای بلەکمۆر (٢٠٠٢) هەیانە دەورێکی نیشاندەری ڕێکارییانەیان هەیە و بەم واتایە ئەو پرۆسە زانینیانەی کە ئەنجامێکیان لێ دەکەوێتەوە پەیوەندییان لەگەڵ بەراوردکردنی دەربەستبوونی ئاخێوەران، ڕاستیەتی ئەو بەستێنەی کە پەیوەندی چێ دەکات و هەروەها باوەڕپێکراوی ئاخێوەران بۆ سازدانی داخوازیگەلێکی ڕاست سەبارەت بەو ڕووداوانەی کە وەسف کراون هەیە. چونکە بیسەرەکان قسەکان لە ڕێگەیەکەوە ڕاڤە دەکەن کە بەباشترین شێوە پەیوەندی لەگەڵ ساز بکەن و هەروەها کەمەترین هەوڵی بۆ بدرێت (سپێربر و وێڵسن ١٩٩٥)، ئەم نیشانە بچووکانە کە پرۆسەی ڕاڤەیەکی کارەکی بەدەستەوە دەدەن بۆ ڕێنوێنی ئەو بیسەرانە بەس دەکەن کە بە چەند ڕاڤەیەکی کاتی، پەیوەندیدار بە کردار و کاتی ڕووداوەکانەوە دەگەن و ئاخێوەران مەبەستیانە. من بەڵگە دەهێنمەوە کە لە کرمانجی ستاندارددا ئامرازی وێ، بە بەراورد لەگەڵ دێ لە بادینیدا، دەبێتە هۆی چەند شێوازێکی نەختێک جیاواز. ئەم جیاوازییانە چەند لێکدانەوەیەکی ماناناسیانە دەستەبەر دەکەن و بەمگوێرەیە جۆراوجۆری زارەکانی کوردیی باکور لە ڕێگەی ئاوڕدانەوە لە نیشانەکانی دواڕۆژ و سەرچاوەدان بە چەند جیهانێکی گونجاو بەڵام ناواقێع دابین دەکرێت.

Historical linguistic sources of Kurdish date back just a few hundred years, thus it is not possiInvestigation of the regional variation in Kurmanji, especially its varieties spoken in Turkey, has been almost entirely neglected in the existing literature on Kurdish. In addition to earlier isolated examinations of Kurmanji dialects (cf. MacKenzie, 1961; Ritter, 1971, 1976; Blau, 1975; Jastrow, 1977), native-speaker researchers have recently provided a substantial amount of dialect material across the Kurmanji-speech zone. However, a methodologically-informed evaluation of these observations into a dialect classification is yet to be undertaken. This article aims at providing an initial classification of Kurmanji-internal variation into major regional dialects, based on lexical, phonological and morphosyntactic data collected from five localities in Southeastern Turkey.

Cihêrengiya zimanî ya navxweyî di kurmanciyê de: tesnîfeke seretayî ya zaravayan



Di nav xebatên li ser zimanê kurdî de, heta niha, vekolîna cudatiyên devok û zaravayên kurmanciyê, bi taybetî ewên di nav sînorên Tirkiyeyê de, hema bi temamî hatiye piştguhkirin. Ji bilî çend xebatên serbixwe yên pêştir li ser zaravayên kurmancî (wek MacKenzie 1961; Ritter, 1971 û 1976; Blau, 1976; Jastrow 1977), di nav van salên dawî de vekolerên kurdîziman qewareyeke mezin a dane û materyelên ji gelek zaravayên kurmanciyê berhev kirine. Lê belê, hêj ev çavdêriyên berbelav bi rengekî metodolojîk nehatine nirxandin ku tesnîfeke zaravayan jê bi dest bikeve. Ev meqale dil dike tesnîfeke seretayî ya zaravayên serekî yên kurmanciyê pêşkêş bike li ser bingehê daneyên peyvî û fonolojîk û rêzimanî yên li pênc deverên başûr-rojhilatê Tirkiyeyê berhevkirî.



جیاوازی ناوچەیی لەناو کرمانجیدا: پۆلینبەندییەکی سەرەتایی زاراوەکان



لەناو ئەو لێکۆڵینەوانەی کە سەبارەت بە جیاوازی ناوچەیی لە کرمانجیدا ئەنجام دراوە، بەتایبەت ئەوانەی کە لەمەڕ جۆربەجۆری ئەو [زاراوانەی] کە لە تورکیا قسەیان پێ دەکرێ، بەتەواوی لەمەڕ هەبوونی ئەدەبیاتێکی هەبوو بە زمانی کوردی چاوپۆشی دەکرێت. سەرەڕای چەند تاقیکردنەوەیەکی تاک و تەرا سەبارەت بە شێوەزارەکانی کرمانجی کە پێشتر بەئەنجام گەیشتوون (بەراوردی بکەن لەگەڵ مەک‌کینزی، ١٩٦١؛ ڕیتێر، ١٩٧١ و ١٩٧٦؛ بلەو، ١٩٧٦؛ یاسترۆ، ١٩٧٧) لەم ساڵانەی دواییدا توێژەرانی کورد ڕادەیەکی بەرچاو لە مادەی پێویست سەبارەت بە شێوەزارەکانی کرمانجییان لە دەڤەری کرمانجی ئاخێودا دەستەبەر کردووە. هەرچەند بەمەبەستی پۆلینبەندی زاراوەکان، هەتاکوو ئێستا، هەڵسەنگاندنێکی مێتۆدیک و پڕزانیاری لەسەر ئەم تێڕامانانە ئەنجام نەدراوە. ئامانجی ئەم وتارە بریتییە لەوەی کە پۆلینبەندییەکی سەرەتایی لەو جیاوازییە ناوخۆییەی کە لە زاراوە سەرەکییەکانی ناوچە کرمانجی ئاخێوەکاندا هەیە بەدەستەوە بدات و بۆ ئەم مەبەستە توێژینەوەکە لەسەر بنەمای ئەو داتا وشەیی، دەنگناسی و پێکهاتەی ڕێزمانییانە ئەنجام دەدرێت کە لە پێنج ناوچەی باشوری ڕۆژهەڵاتی تورکیا کۆ کراونەتەوە.

Historical linguistic sources of Kurdish date back just a few hundred years, thus it is not possible to track the profound grammatical changes of Western Iranian languages in Kurdish. Through a comparison with attested languages of the Middle Iranian period, this paper provides a hypothetical chronology of grammatical changes. It allows us to tentatively localise the approximate time when modern varieties separated with regard to the respective grammatical change. In order to represent the types of linguistic relationship involved, distinct models of language contact and language continua are set up.



Li ser tarîxa zimannasî ya zimanê kurdî

Çavkaniyên tarîxî yên zimanê kurdî bes bi qasî çend sedsalan kevn in, lewma em nikarin di zimanê kurdî de wan guherînên bingehî yên rêzimana zimanên îranî yên rojavayî destnîşan bikin. Ev meqale kronolojiyeke ferazî ya guherînên rêzimanî yên kurdiyê dabîn dike bi rêya muqayesekirina bi wan zimanên xwedan-belge yên serdema îraniya navîn. Bi vî rengî, em dikarin bi awayekî muweqet dem û serdemeke teqrîbî diyar bikin ku tê de ziman û şêwezarên nû ji aliyê guherînên rêzimanî ve jêk cuda bûne. Ji bo berçavkirina awayên têkiliya zimanî di navbera zimanan de, modêlên cihê yên temasa zimanî û dirêjeya zimanî hatine danîn.



١. سەبارەت بە مێژووی زمانناسیی زمانی کوردی



سەرچاوە مێژووە زمانناسییەکانی زمانی کوردی تەنیا بۆ چەند سەدە پێش ئێستا دەگەڕێنەوە، بۆیە ناکرێت شوێن پێی گۆڕانکارییە پڕمانا ڕێزمانییەکانی زمانەکانی ڕۆژئاوای ئێران لەناو زمانی کوردیدا هەڵگرین. ئەم وتارە، لە ڕێگەی بەراوردکردنی زمانی کوردی لەگەڵ زمانەکانی قۆناغی ئێرانی ناوەندی کە بەڵگەمەندن، کرۆنۆلۆجیایەکی گریمانەیی لە گۆڕانکارییە ڕێزمانییەکان بەدەستەوە دەدات. ئەم ڕێکارە ڕێگەمان پێ دەدات، کە بەشێوەیەکی تاقیکاری، کاتێک نزیک بەو سەردەمە دەستنیشان بکەین کە جۆراوجۆرییە نوێکان بەگوێرەی گۆڕانی ڕێزمانیی پەیوەندیدار لە یەک جیا دەبنەوە. بۆ پیشاندانی جۆرەکانی پەیوەندی زمانناسی کە لێرەدا خۆیان دەردەخەن، چەند مۆدێلی جیاواز لە بەرکەوتنی زمانی و درێژەدانی زمانی ئامادە کراوە.

Investigation of the regional variation in Kurmanji, especially its varieties spoken in Turkey, has been almost entirely neglected in the existing literature on Kurdish. In addition to earlier isolated examinations of Kurmanji dialects (cf. MacKenzie, 1961; Ritter, 1971, 1976; Blau, 1975; Jastrow, 1977), native-speaker researchers have recently provided a substantial amount of dialect material across the Kurmanji-speech zone. However, a methodologically-informed evaluation of these observations into a dialect classification is yet to be undertaken. This article aims at providing an initial classification of Kurmanji-internal variation into major regional dialects, based on lexical, phonological and morphosyntactic data collected from five localities in Southeastern Turkey.



Cihêrengiya zimanî ya navxweyî di kurmanciyê de: tesnîfeke seretayî ya zaravayan

Di nav xebatên li ser zimanê kurdî de, heta niha, vekolîna cudatiyên devok û zaravayên kurmanciyê, bi taybetî ewên di nav sînorên Tirkiyeyê de, hema bi temamî hatiye piştguhkirin. Ji bilî çend xebatên serbixwe yên pêştir li ser zaravayên kurmancî (wek MacKenzie 1961; Ritter, 1971 û 1976; Blau, 1976; Jastrow 1977), di nav van salên dawî de vekolerên kurdîziman qewareyeke mezin a dane û materyelên ji gelek zaravayên kurmanciyê berhev kirine. Lê belê, hêj ev çavdêriyên berbelav bi rengekî metodolojîk nehatine nirxandin ku tesnîfeke zaravayan jê bi dest bikeve. Ev meqale dil dike tesnîfeke seretayî ya zaravayên serekî yên kurmanciyê pêşkêş bike li ser bingehê daneyên peyvî û fonolojîk û rêzimanî yên li pênc deverên başûr-rojhilatê Tirkiyeyê berhevkirî.



جیاوازی ناوچەیی لەناو کرمانجیدا: پۆلینبەندییەکی سەرەتایی زاراوەکان

لەناو ئەو لێکۆڵینەوانەی کە سەبارەت بە جیاوازی ناوچەیی لە کرمانجیدا ئەنجام دراوە، بەتایبەت ئەوانەی کە لەمەڕ جۆربەجۆری ئەو [زاراوانەی] کە لە تورکیا قسەیان پێ دەکرێ، بەتەواوی لەمەڕ هەبوونی ئەدەبیاتێکی هەبوو بە زمانی کوردی چاوپۆشی دەکرێت. سەرەڕای چەند تاقیکردنەوەیەکی تاک و تەرا سەبارەت بە شێوەزارەکانی کرمانجی کە پێشتر بەئەنجام گەیشتوون (بەراوردی بکەن لەگەڵ مەک‌کینزی، ١٩٦١؛ ڕیتێر، ١٩٧١ و ١٩٧٦؛ بلەو، ١٩٧٦؛ یاسترۆ، ١٩٧٧) لەم ساڵانەی دواییدا توێژەرانی کورد ڕادەیەکی بەرچاو لە مادەی پێویست سەبارەت بە شێوەزارەکانی کرمانجییان لە دەڤەری کرمانجی ئاخێودا دەستەبەر کردووە. هەرچەند بەمەبەستی پۆلینبەندی زاراوەکان، هەتاکوو ئێستا، هەڵسەنگاندنێکی مێتۆدیک و پڕزانیاری لەسەر ئەم تێڕامانانە ئەنجام نەدراوە. ئامانجی ئەم وتارە بریتییە لەوەی کە پۆلینبەندییەکی سەرەتایی لەو جیاوازییە ناوخۆییەی کە لە زاراوە سەرەکییەکانی ناوچە کرمانجی ئاخێوەکاندا هەیە بەدەستەوە بدات و بۆ ئەم مەبەستە توێژینەوەکە لەسەر بنەمای ئەو داتا وشەیی، دەنگناسی و پێکهاتەی ڕێزمانییانە ئەنجام دەدرێت کە لە پێنج ناوچەی باشوری ڕۆژهەڵاتی تورکیا کۆ کراونەتەوە.

This is an obituary for Professor Ol’ga Ivanovna Zhigalina, the well-known Russian Kurdologist and Iranist and director of the Kurdish Cabinet at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Science (Institút vostokovédenija Rossíjskoj akadémii naúk) in Moscow, who sadly passed away at her place of work on 23rd October, 2013. Over four decades Professor Zhigalina made an immense contribution to the field of Kurdology and the modern history of the Kurds, and her work continues to resonate in this field.

This article investigates how the Kurdish home, borders and the state are depicted in one of the most important Kurdish cultural expressions in Turkey until 1980: the dengbêj art. The recital songs of the dengbêjs form a fascinating source to investigate how Kurds experienced life on the margins of the (nation-)state. We argue that the songs demonstrate that many Kurds perceived the political geography of the state they officially belonged to as foreign and not as a legitimate part of Kurdish socio-political reality. The Kurdish political geography created in the songs exists in small-scale local structures and alliances, and there is mostly no reference to a common Kurdish cause. Borders are presented as foreign interference in the Kurdish landscape. In the conclusion we suggest that Kurdish fragmented political structure should be understood as a deliberate means to avoid being incorporated in a state structure. This speaks against a (self-)Orientalist interpretation of Kurdish history that defines a lack of Kurdish unity as primitive.



Dengbêj li ser sînoran: Dîtina sînor û dewletê bi çavên dengbêjan



Ev gotar vedikolê bê welatê Kurdan, sînor û dewlet çawan hatine şayesandin di yek ji girîngtirîn derbirînên çanda Kurdî da li Tirkiyeyê, heta 1980yê: anku dengbêjiyê. Kilamên resîtal ên dengbêjan çavkaniyeka hijmetkar pêk dihînin bo vekolîna serboriyên Kurdan ku mane li qeraxên netewe-dewletan. Em angaşt dikin ku, herçend Kurd bi xwe bi rengekî fermî parçeyek ji erdnîgara fermî ne, kilam destnîşan dikin ku gelek Kurd vê erdnîgara siyasî ya dewletê wekî diyardeyekî biyanî dibînin, ne ku wekî parçeyek rewa ji rastiya sosyo-polîtîk a Kurdîtiye. Erdnîgara polîtîk ya Kurdîtiyê ku di kilaman da hatiye afirandin pile-biçûk e û, bi piranî bêyî dozeka Kurdî ya hevbeş, ji hevalbediyên deverî pêk hatiye. Di kilaman da sînor wekî destwerdanên biyaniyan li welatê Kurdan hatine berpêş kirin. Di dawiyê de em pêşniyar dikin ku a rast Kurd bi zanebûn vê siyaseta parçebûyî meşandine da ku xwe vebidizin ji bişaftinê di avahiya dewletê da. Ev nêrîn di derbarê dîroka Kurdan da li dijî şîroveyên (oto)-oryantalîst e, çikû ew nebûna yekîtiya Kurdan wekî diyardeyekî prîmîtîv dibînin.



دەنگبێژانی سەرسنوور. سنوور و وڵات لە ڕوانگە ی شاعیر و گۆرانیبێژی کوردەوە.



ئەم وتارە باس لەوە دەکا کە وڵاتی کوردان، سنوورەکان و دەوڵەت چۆن لە یەكێ لە گرنگترین چەمکی کولتوری کوردی لە تورکیا تا ساڵی ١٩٨٠ نیشان دراون: هۆنەری دەنگبێژی. گۆرانییەکانی دەنگبێژەکان سەرچاوەیەکی چڕ و پڕن بۆ لێکۆڵینەوە لەسەر چۆنیەتی ژیانی کوردان لەسەر سنووری دەوڵەتان. ئێمە دەمانەوێ بڵێین کە گۆرانییەکان باس لەوە دەکەن کە زۆرینەی کوردەکان ئەم جۆگرافیا سیاسی فەرمییەی دەوڵەتی تورکیایە وەکوو وڵاتێکی بیانی سەیری دەکەن، نەک وەک بەشێکی یاسایی لە چوارچێوەی کۆمەڵایەتی سیاسی کوردی. جۆگرافیای سیاسی کوردی ناو گۆرانییەکان لە کۆمەڵێک ناوچەی چکۆلە پێک هاتووە و تەنانەت شتێک بە ناوی کێشە و مەسەلەی کورد ئاماژەی پێناکرێ. سنوورەکان وەکوو دەستدرێژی بیانی سەر خاکی کوردان سەیر دەکردێن. لە کۆتاییشدا، چوارچێوەی سیاسی دابەشبووی کوردی دەبێ وەکوو کەرەسەیەکی ڕاستەوخۆ سەیر بکرێ کە پێش بە سازبوونی دەوڵەتێکی کوردی دەگرێ. ئەوەش دژ بە شیکردنەوەی باوەڕی سێلف ـ ئۆریێنتالیستە لە سەر مێژووی کورد کە باس لە نەبوونی یەکگرتوویی کوردی لە بنەڕەتدا دەکا.

Though a macro-level analysis this article examines the evolution of the Kurdish issue since the occupation of Iraq in 2003 and the Syrian crisis in 2011, underlining the necessity of a comparison between the current period and past situations, namely that of the 1980s. Kurdish actors participated from a rather weak position in the Middle-East wide conflicts during the 1980s; alliances with regional states that gave access to political and military resources ensured their durability, but a high price was paid for their transformation into subordinated players of a broader “state of violence”. Since 2011, the trans-border Kurdish space finds itself once again in the heart of a “system of transaction” based on violence, but Kurdish organisations face the new region-wide conflicts in a position of empowerment in Iraq, Syria and Turkey.



Kurd û Rewşa Tund ya Rojhilata Navîn: 1980yan û 2010an

Ev gotar, bi rêka helsengeka asta-makro, vedikole li  peresîna pirsgirêka Kurdî ji dema dagirbûna Iraqê di 2003yê da û qeyrana Sûriyeyê di 2011ê da û bi taybetî beldikişîne ser pêwistiya berhevdaneka di navbera serdema niha û rewşa borî, anku rewşa salên 80yan. Di salên 80yan da hêzên Kurd pitir ji pozisyoneka qels û lawaz beşdarî dijberî û aloziyên Rojhilata Navîn bûn; hevalbendiyên li gel dewletên li herêmê rê da bikaranîna çavkaniyên siyasî û leşkerî bo misogerkirina berdewamiya hêzên Kurd; lê van dewletan, bi hewldanên giranbuha, hişt ku kurd bimînin wekî aktorên bindest di nav rewşa tund ya herêmê da. Ji 2011ê ve, tevgera kurd ya dersînor careka din xwe di navenda pergaleka tund da dibine; lê vê carê rêkxistinên kurd yên li Iraq, Sûriye û Tirkiyeyê ji pozisyoneka bihêz rûberî vê dijberiya berfireh ya heremî ne.





کورد و ''باری توندوتیژی''ی ڕۆژهەڵاتی ناوەڕاست: ١٩٨٠کان و ٢٠١٠یەکان

حئەگەرچی ئەم گوتارە  شیکردنەوەیە لە پلەیەکی باڵادا، لە گەشەکردنی پرسی کورد ورد دەبێتەوە لە داگیرکردنی عیراقەوە ساڵی ٢٠٠٣ و لە قەیرانی سووریاوە ساڵی ٢٠١١، ئەوەیش جەخت دەکات کە  پێویستە بەراورد بکرێت لەنێوان قۆناغی ئێستا و و هەلومەرجی ڕابوردوودا، واتە هەلومەرجی ١٩٨٠کان. نەخشگێڕانی کورد لە هەڵوێستێکی تا ڕادەیەک لاوازەوە بەشدارییان لە ناکۆکییە فراوانەکانی ڕۆژهەڵاتی ناوەڕاستی ١٩٨٠کاندا کرد؛ هاوپەیمانیکردن لەگەڵ دەوڵەتانی ناوچەییدا کە دەبووە هۆی دەستکەوتنی سەرچاوەی سیاسی و عەسکەری، مانەوەیانی دابین دەکرد، بەڵام دەبوو نرخێکی زۆریش بدەن بۆ ئەوەی ببنە یاریکەری لاوەکی لە ''باری توندوتیژی''یەکی بەربڵاودا. لە ساڵی ٢٠١١ بە دواوە، ڕووپێوی کوردیی ئەمدیو و ئەودیوی سنوورەکان جارێکی دیکە خۆی لە ناوجەرگەی ''سیستەمێکی بدە و بستێنە''دا دەبینێتەوە کە لەسەر توندوتیژی هەڵچنراوە، بەڵام ڕێکخراوە کوردییەکان کە ڕووبەڕووی ناکۆکییە بەربڵاوەکانی ناوچەکە دەبنەوە، لە پلەیەکی توانستدان لە عیراق، سووریا و تورکیا.

Uğur Ümit Üngör, The Making of Modern Turkey: Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia, 1913-1950, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, 352 pp. (ISBN: 9780199603602).

Mohammed M. A. Ahmed, Iraqi Kurds and Nation-Building. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012, 294 pp., (ISBN: 978-1-137-03407-6), (paper).

Ofra Bengio, The Kurds of Iraq: Building a State within a State. Boulder, CO and London, UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2012, xiv + 346 pp., (ISBN 978-1-58826-836-5), (hardcover).

Cengiz Gunes, The Kurdish National Movement in Turkey, from Protest to Resistance, London: Routledge, 2012, 256 pp., (ISBN: 978-0-415—68047-9).

Aygen, Gülşat, Kurmanjî Kurdish. Languages of the World/Materials 468, München: Lincom Europa, 2007, 92 pp., (ISBN: 9783895860706), (paper).

Barzoo Eliassi, Contesting Kurdish Identities in Sweden: Quest for Belonging among Middle Eastern Youth, Oxford: New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013, 234 pp. (ISBN: 9781137282071).

This paper discusses women’s activism in Kurdistan- Iraq since 1992. It aims to find out whether 21 years of struggle against gender discrimination has led to notable changes in the status quo. It concludes by arguing that as a result of the patriarchal system’s resilience and the women’s movement’s internal shortcomings, achievements have been limited. The paper draws on 7 in-depth interviews with women activists, written sources, personal communications and my observations while participating in activities organised by women’s groups.



Çalakgeriya jinan li Kurdistana Iraqê: Destxistî, kemasî û asteng

Ev xebat nîqaş dike li ser çalakgeriya jinan li Kurdistana Iraqê ji sala 1992ê ve. Armanca wê ew e ku vebibîne bê tekoşîna jinan ya 21 salan li dijî cudakeriya zayendî rê daye guherînên sereke di rewşa-heyî da an na. Ev xebat di nîqaşa xwe da digihe wê qenaetê ku destketiyên di vê qadê de bisînor in ji ber berhelistiya pergala patrîarkal û kêmasiyên navxweyî yên bizavên jinan. Ev xebat xwe dispêre heft hevpeyvînên berfireh li gel jinên çalakger, çavkaniyên nivîsî, peywendiyên kesane û herwisan çavdêriyên min ên çalakiyên jinan yên ji aliyê koma jinan ve hatin rêkxistin ku ez bi xwe jî têda beşdar bûm.



چالاکوانی ژنان لە کوردستان- عێراق: دەستکەوت، کەموکووڕی و رێگرەکان

ئەم وتارە باس لە چالاکوانی ژنانی ھەرێمی کوردستان دەکات لە ساڵی ١٩٩٢-ەوە تا ئێستا. ھەوڵدەدات لەوە بکۆڵێتەوە کە ئاخۆ ٢١ ساڵ خەبات دژی جیاکاری جێندەریی بۆتە ھۆی گۆڕانکاری بەرچاو لە دۆخی باودا. وتارەکە ئەنجامگیری ئەوە دەکات کە بەبۆنەی سەرسەختی و خۆگونجاندنی سیستەمی باوکسالاری لەلایەک و کەموكووڕییە ناوەکیەکانی بزوتنەوەی ژنان لە لایەکی ترەوە، دەستکەوتەکان سنوورداربوون. ئەم لێکۆڵینەوەیە پشت بە ٧ چاوپێکەوتنی تێروتەسەل دەبەستێت لەگەڵ ژنانی چالاکوان و ھەروەھا سوود لە سەرچاوە نووسراوەکان و گفتوگۆی تایبەت و بەشداربوونی خۆشم دەبەستێت لەو چالاکیانەدا کە رێکخراوەکانی ژنان سازیانداوە.

وشە سەرەکییەکان: ھەرێمی کوردستان، بزوتنەوەی ژنان، دەستکەوت، کەموکووڕیی، سەرسەختی پیاوسالاری

This article examines aspects of the entanglement of (social) science, politics and media in Iraqi Kurdistan and investigates their representation in Kurdish newspapers, taking a quantitative study on genocidal persecution published by a Kurdistan government ministry as an example. It demonstrates how one and the same corpus of science-based ideas is appropriated and operationalised according to very different political agendas, and how the media itself conveys certain beliefs on the measurability of social experience and the truth value of science-based knowledge. Drawing on the broad debate in social science and the humanities on knowledge and the capitalist society, this article discusses aspects of the scientification of media and the politicisation of academic knowledge production.



Berpêşkirina rastiyên li ser bingehên zanistiyê wekî nûçe: hilberana zanyariyê û medya li Kurdistana Iraqê

Ev gotar astengên li ber zanyariya civakî, siyasî û medyayê li Kurdistana Iraqê û pêşkeşkirina wan di rojnameyên Kurdî da vedikole. Ev lêkolîn xwe dispêre xebateka çendaniyî/quantîtatîv ya nimûneyî li ser çespandina komkujînî ku ji layê Wezareta Hikûmeta Kurdistanê ve hatiye weşandin. Ev xebat nîşan dide bê di medyayê da fikrên zanistî çawan hatine guhertin û bikarînan li gor berjewendiyên siyasî yên ji hev gelek cuda. Ew herwisan destnîşan dike bê medya bi çi rengî baweriyên pûç hildiwerîne li ser pîvandariya serboriyên civakî û li ser rastiya zanyariyên zanistî. Bi bikarînana nîqaşên fereh di qada zanistiya civakî û beşerî da li ser zanyarî û civaka sermayedar, mijara vê gotarê nîqaşkirina wan nêrînan e ku medyayê wekî çavkaniyeka zanyariyên zanistî dihesibînin û wisan pêşkêş dikin. Ev gotar herwisan nîqaş dike li ser zanyariya akademîk ya ku di bin bandora siyasetê da tê hilberandin.



حەقیقەتی بە زانستی کراو وەکوو نووچە: زانین بەرهەم هێنان و میدیا لە کوردستانی ئێراق

ئەم کاغەزە لە سەر هیندێک لایەنی زانستی (کۆمەڵایەتی)، سیاسەت و میدیا لە کوردستانی ئێراق لێکۆلینەوە دەکات و هەروەها شێوازی بەرجەستەکردنەوە و نواندنەوەی ئەوان لە رۆژنامە کوردییەکان دا دەخاتە بەر تیشکی لێکدانەوە، وەکوو نموونە، لیکۆڵینەوەیەکی چەندییەتی (کوانتیتاتیڤ) لە سەر ستەمەکانی پەیوەندیدار بە ژینۆسیدەوە کە لە لایان وەزارەتخانەیەکی حکوومەتی هەریمی کوردستانەوە بڵاو کراوەتەوە.  ئەمە نیشانی داوە، چۆناوچۆن هەر هەمان کۆبیرۆکەی لە سەر زانست دارژتراو، بە ئاجێندایەکی سیاسی تەواو جیاواز وەرگیراوە و بە کارهێنراوە و هەروەها دەبیندرێت کە چۆناوچۆن خودی میدیا دەبیتە سەرچاوەی چەشنە باوەرییەک لە سەر بە پێوانکردنی ئەزموونی کۆمەڵایەتی و نرخی حەقیقەتی زانینی بە زانستی کراو. بە رێگای راوەستەکردن لە سەر گەنگەشەکانی نێو زانستی کۆمەڵایەتی و جیهانی زانین و کۆمەڵگای سەرمایەداری، ئەم نووسراوەیە، لایەنی بە زانستی کردنی میدیا و بە سیاسی کردنی زانستی ئاکادیمیک دەخاتە بەر باس و لێکۆلینەوە.

وشە سەرەکییەکان: هەریمی کوردستان، میدیا، شالاوی ئەنفال، بەرهەمهێنانی زانین، ئانترۆپۆلۆژی میدیا

A qualitative case study was used to examine the experiences and perceptions of foreigners during interactions with small- and medium-sized enterprises in the Seoul Metropolitan Area.  Two constructs, intercultural communications and consumer language, were used to identify difficulties that foreigners experienced during service encounters.  In-depth interviews were conducted with 10 participants based on a purposive sampling frame of 62 foreign professors.

The transcripts were entered into MAXqda software and coded.  The data across all the cases were compared to identify patterns and themes that emerged using a cross-case synthesis. The implications included Koreans being approach avoidant during interactions with foreign consumers, and foreigners being treated politely.  Limitations of the study included the use of purposive sampling and utilizing participants only in South Korea.  Recommendations for practice included the use of signs and greetings in various languages, creating programs to educate SMEs about the use of English as a competitive advantage, and offering language and culture classes to foreigners.  Recommendations for future research include a mixed method study on the convenience level of spoken Korean for foreign consumers in high- and low-involvement service encounters and a qualitative multivariate regression study to further explore approach avoidance tendencies of SMEs.

The purpose of the current research is to investigate the relationships between country personality dimensions and consumer behavioural intentions, and to examine in detail the perceived personality of a stimulus-country. A convenience sample of 130 individuals from Brazil was surveyed and 115 usable questionnaires were analyzed. Portugal was chosen as the country for scrutiny and the questionnaire was delivered in Portuguese. Country personality was measured using the 24 items of personality traits six dimensions scale of d’Astous & Boujbel (2007). The research findings suggest that consumers ascribe personality characteristics to countries. All the items show high factorial weights, and in the proposed model the percentage of the variance of the intention to recommend explained by the perceived country personality dimensions equals around 23%. Assiduousness showed a positive significant influence on intention to recommend, whereas wickedness showed a significant negative influence. The findings suggest differences from the comparable earlier studies. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed. Complementarily, and as suggested by the personality traits frequency analysis, Portugal is seen as a traditionalist country.

Transnational Marketing Journal is a new scholarly, peer-reviewed journal is dedicated to disseminating high quality contemporary research into transnational marketing practices and scholarship while encouraging critical approaches in the development of marketing theory and practice. It is an exciting new venture for us and we would like to invite innovative thinking, scholarship, and current research into marketing practices and challenges crossing national borders.

In Transnational Marketing and Transnational Consumers, Transnational Marketing is defined “as understanding and addressing customer needs, wants and desires in their own country of residence and beyond and in borderless cultural contexts with the help of synergies emerging across national boundaries and transfer of expertise and advantages between markets where the organization operates transnationally with a transnational mentality supported by transnational organization structures and without compromising the sustainability of any target markets and resource environment offering satisfactory exchanges between the parties involved” (Sirkeci, 2013: vii).